The press

The Roman Empire. The urge to inform the public of official developments and pronouncements had been a characteristic of most autocratic rules. This urge was fulfilled in ancient Rome by the Acta Diurna ("Daily Events"), a daily gazette dating from 59 ВС and attributed in origin to Julius Caesar. Handwritten copies of this early journal were posted in prominent places in Rome and in the provinces with the clear intention of feeding the populace with official information. The Acta Diurna was not, however, restricted to proclamations, edits, or even to political decisions taken in the Roman Senate, the actions of which were reported separately in the Acta Senatus (literally "Proceedings of the State"). The typical Acta Diurna might contain news of gladiatorial contests, astrological omens, notable marriages, births and deaths, public appointments, and trials and executions. Such reading matter complemented the usual fare of military news and plebiscite results also given in the Acta Diurna and presaged the future popularity of such newspaper filler and horoscopes, the obituary column, and the sports pages.

Medieval Europe. In Europe, the impetus for regular publications of news was lacking for several centuries after the break up of the Roman Empire. The increased output of books and pamphlets made possible by the development of the printing press in the 16th century did not include any newspapers, properly defined. The neatest form was the newssheet, which was not printed but handwritten by official scribes and read aloud by town criers. News was also contained in the news^ pamphlet, which flourished in the 16th century as a means of disseminating information on particular topics of interest. One such pamphlet, printed in England by Richard Fawkes, and dated September 1513, was a description of the Battle of Flodden Field. Titled "Trew Encountre", this four-leaved pamphlet gave an eyewitness account of the battle together with a list of the English heroes involved. By the final decade of the 15th century, publication of newsbooks was running at more than 20 a year in England alone, matching a regular supply on the Continent. Authors und printers escaped official censorship or penalty by remaining anonymous or cultivating a certain obscurity for it took a long time before the pamphlets came to the attention of the authorities. In any case the topics most frequently chosen for coverage -scandals, feats or heroism or marvelous occurrences — were mainly nonpolitical and could not be> regarded as a threat to the powerful. Governments in various Countries were already in the vanguard of news publishing for propaganda purposes. The Venetian republic set a precedent by charging an admission fee of one gazeta (3/4 — three fourths of a penny) to public readings of the latest news concerning the war with Turkey (1563), this recognizing a commercial demand for news, even on the part of the illiterate. The term gazette was to become common among latest newspapers sold commercially. Another popular title was to be Mercury (the messenger of the gods). The Mercurius Gallobelgicus (1588—1638) was among the earliest of a number of periodical summaries of the news that began to appear in Europe in the late 16th century. Newspaper names like Mercury, Herald and Express have always been popular, suggesting the immediacy of freshness of the reading matter. Other names, such as Observer, Guardian, Standard and Argus stress the social role played by the newspapers in a democratic society. Newspaper development can be seen in three phases: first, the sporadic forerunners, gradually moving towards regular publications; second, more or less regular journals but liable to suppression and subject to censorship and licensing, and, third, a phase in which direct censorship is abandoned but attempts at Control continue through taxation, bribery and prosecution. Thereafter, some degree of independence has followed.